Gender Mainstreaming in Trade Agreements: Lessons and Future Pathways
Dr. Javeria Maryam, Erasmus University Rotterdam & University of Hamburg
In today’s integrated global economy, international trade is often seen as a tool to boost female workforce participation. However, achieving sustainable and inclusive growth requires gender-sensitive trade policies to ensure equitable benefits for all.
Gender-differentiated roles and gender-biased business practices exist in global markets, causing women to be more disadvantaged. In formal employment and competitive industries, women are frequently underrepresented, with only 20% of export firms owned or managed by women. With the increase in trade openness, women can access a range of benefits, including higher wages, improved access to technology, and increased productivity. Trade can also create new employment opportunities in export-oriented industries, facilitate skills development, and enhance women’s economic empowerment by opening doors to entrepreneurship. Additionally, access to international markets can enable women-owned businesses to scale up, expand their customer base, and increase their competitiveness. Promoting gender equality is essential for fostering sustainable and inclusive economic growth. International trade agreements have great potential to promote gender equality and advance economic development.
Compared to the traditional trade agreements, the new age trade agreements are evolving their scope and coverage beyond market access concerns. Non-trade issues such as gender equality, labour, and the environment have taken a critical spotlight in modern trade agreements. This advancement of the interconnections between trade and non-trade issues signals an intent to foster sustainable and inclusive development. Currently, almost one third of Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs) currently in force and notified to the WTO contain gender-related provisions.
The main objective for the inclusion of gender mainstreaming through trade pacts is to enhance the positive impact of trade on women. It will be crucial to understand how gender-related provisions in trade agreements are aligned with the targets of the UN 2030 Agenda Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5. The overarching goal of UN SDG 5 is to “achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls”. Although RTAs have not directly included SDG 5 targets, they incorporate provisions that promote gender equality, indirectly aligning with these goals. Evidence shows that some of these provisions positively impact women in areas such as leadership, safety, anti-discrimination, and health services. For example, Chapter 6 Article 45 of the EU-Central America Association Agreement includes provisions aimed at improving access to health services, leading to collaborative projects focusing on maternal health and healthcare for women. Similarly, Chapter 23 Article 23.3 of the USMCAincludes commitments to combat gender-based violence, which have inspired initiatives across member countries to address violence in the workplace and support women workers. The CPTPP (Chapter 19 Article 19.6)and UK-Australiaagreements (Chapter 22 Article 22.6) also address gender discrimination, helping to improve workplace equality and provide more leadership opportunities for women in export-oriented industries. Table 1 below provides a bird-eye analysis of these indirect SDG 5 alignments across RTAs, illustrating how trade agreements gradually support gender equality.
Table 1: Incorporation of SDG 5 Targets in RTAs
Source: Author’s analysis based on UNESCAP TINA’s Database
This analysis highlights the partial alignment of these provisions with SDG 5 targets. As the old age RTAs are going through a transition to a new age agreements, gender-related provisions are expected to be designed to incorporate UN SDG 5. In the late 2000s, trade negotiators were encouraged to include gender provisions in trade agreements to increase women's economic opportunities. Addressing the issue of women's economic empowerment provisions in next-generation trade agreements will require designing these agreement to incorporate clear commitments to lower barriers that impede women’s participation in the economy. These barriers include discriminatory laws and practices, limited access to credit and financial services, unequal access to education and skills development, cultural and social norms that restrict women's mobility and employment, and gender biases in labour markets that result in lower wages and fewer leadership opportunities for women.
The inclusion of gender-based provisions in modern RTAs highlights the heterogeneous structure of these agreements. The specific provisions and commitments vary, reflecting the different priorities, contexts, and approaches of the parties involved. There is a need todevelop a dedicated template to integrate gender provisions in trade agreements. Currently, most of the gender provisions are included in the preamble, chapters on labour, orchapters on trade and gender. To make trade agreementsmore gender-responsive, the language needs to move beyond the ‘best endeavour’ or ‘recognise’ language and integrate more effective commitments to gender equality. Furthermore, to have truly inclusive trade there is a need to accompany the commitments with strong and clear enforcementmechanisms.
Future Pathways for Gender Mainstreaming
To strengthen the impact of gender mainstreaming in trade agreements, policymakers and stakeholders should consider the following strategies:
Enforceability and accountability: Gender provisions should come with binding commitments and measurable targets. This should include regular monitoring and reporting on progress, with specific indicators that track women's participation in trade and the broader economy.
Capacity Building: Supporting women in trade requires more than policy changes. Programs that offer training in digital skills or export management can empower women to participate effectively in international trade.
Inclusive consultation processes: When negotiating trade agreements, involving women’s organizations, entrepreneurs, and gender experts ensures that diverse perspectives are taken into account. This inclusive approach leads to more comprehensive policies that address the needs of all stakeholders.
Cross-Border collaborations: Countries can learn from each other by sharing best practices and experiences related to gender-inclusive trade policies. Regional partnerships that prioritize gender equality can create a collective movement toward more equitable economic practice.
Gender issues are complex and require more focused attention both at the domestic and international levels. In this, the role of trade agreements is important to address the inequality in international trade governance. The distribution of trade benefits in a more equitable way needs the advancement of gender provisions in trade agreements through a more holistic approach. It is crucial to highlight that gender equality issues cannot be addressed completely through trade agreements. However, trade-gender alignment can support broadly sustainable development. While progress has been made, there is room for stronger implementation and greater accountability. By incorporating robust gender-responsive measures into trade policies, we can move toward an economic system where the benefits of trade are shared more equitably, empowering women and enriching entire communities.
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